Human development can be defined as “systematic changes and continuities in the individual that occur between conception and death” (Sigelman & Rider, 2009, p. 2). The systematic changes which occur over the lifespan can be classified into three groups, namely physical development, cognitive development and psychosocial development.
Physical and cognitive development involves growth of the body, physiological systems, changes in perception and other mental process. “Psychosocial development is changes in personal and interpersonal development such as personality traits, interpersonal skills and relationships and roles played in the family and the larger society” (Sigelman & Rider, 2009, p. 3). All three aspects of development are interconnected, physical and cognitive changes occur within the individual who in turn interacts with other persons and the environment. The cybernetics between the systems means changes in any one part will affect the others.
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A number of theories have been developed over the years which seek to explain the development of humans over their life span. One of the most influential theories developed was by Erik Erikson who believed humans experienced an eight stage psychosocial developmental process. He posits, that each stage of life is characterized by conflict between competing tendencies which have to be successfully negotiated for normal healthy development to occur. Some literature suggests that that development is achieved by striking a balance between the two opposing forces in each stage. The first four stages occur during childhood; one during adolescence and the final three during adulthood.
The eight stages of Erikson model will be discussed briefly followed by a commentary on the writer’s view of the theory. The initial stage is trust versus mistrust, based on whether the infant needs are met by their caregivers. If these are met, they learn to trust others, if not they become wary and suspicious.
The second stage is autonomy versus shame and doubt, in which the focus is on the child learning to regulate bodily urges. Competence in regulating these functions is centered on toilet training and mastery, results in the child gaining some amount of independence. Failure to achieve competence at this stage results in shame as the child’s failure will be criticized by caregivers. It will also result in the child being doubtful about their abilities (Baron, 1998). The third stage is initiative versus guilt where the child begins to display initiative as they develop new physical and mental skills. This is evidenced by the planning and execution of plans. This initiative must be balanced by the need to respect the rights of others (Sigelman & Rider, 2009).
The fourth stage is industry versus inferiority where the child acquires more skills and competencies. Mastery of social and academic skills is emphasized as being important as they are the primary measures of comparison with peers. Failure to achieve mastery will result in feelings of inferiority (Sigelman & Rider, 2009), while success will result in feelings of competency and affirmation in one’s abilities. The fifth stage is identity versus role confusion. This is considered a crucial stage as it occurs during adolescences when teenagers are struggling to understand “who they are” and other important life questions, to determine what is important to them and understanding their unique traits (Baron, 1998).
The successful resolution of the fifth stage helps to “pave the way for the intimacy versus isolation stage where as young adults, persons develop the ability to form committed long term relationships” (Sigelman & Rider, 2009,p.37). Failure to form relationship leads to emotional or social isolation. The seventh stage is generativity versus stagnation, this involves adults experiencing a sense of accomplishment from engaging in activities they feel will result in them leaving a legacy. These activities include rearing children and making a worthwhile contribution through work or community undertakings (Sigelman & Rider, 2009). The final stage is integrity versus despair where persons grapple with whether their lives had meaning. If they feel it had meaning, they will have a sense of integrity and if not they will have a sense of despair (Baron, 1998).
Erikson theory emphasizes the effects of biological and social influences. Aspects of most of the stages resonate with me when I reflect on my development. I recall being in preschool, where I witnessed another child’s failure to maintain control over his bodily urges and the embarrassment and shame that he faced as a result. During the incident, I recall feeling a sense of pride that it wasn’t me. Mastery of stage two (toilet training), was important for feeling normal, based on the expectations of my mother and the wider society.
I can also relate to Erikson’s fourth stage of industry versus inferiority as I experienced a feeling of accomplishment when my educational skills were confirmed in my mind when I successfully obtained a pass in the Common Entrance Examination for a traditional high school. The pressures and competition associated with the process and my success made me feel confident in my abilities. The sense of accomplishment came from the comparing myself to my peers and societal standards. I experienced some of the struggles associated with Erikson’s fifth stage. My struggles included conflicts between the values learnt at home, the influences of peers and other societal influences. The challenge was, which one to follow and the reason for doing so. The struggle involved developing a sense of self that was strong enough to go against what was popular and dealing with the struggles of feeling like an outcast as a result of my choices. It was also about defining how I was as a person as I did not necessarily embrace all of my family’s values.
For Erikson’s sixth stage, I am not sure what characterized balance for this stage, if it is actually forming a stable intimate relationship or just having the potential or capacity to form these relationships. My experience has been that there are a lot of societal pressures to actually be in an intimate relationship especially for females in the middle to later age range of this stage. I remember struggling to feel normal because I chose not to form a relationship until I found what I wanted in a spouse.
Specifically, I struggled against the perception that something was wrong if I was of a certain age and not in a committed relationship. While I believe the experience of having a relationship is character enhancing in some regards, I do not think a lack of it means that ones personality or development is retarded. This is true if the person is able to form and maintain other types of friendship which, albeit different, demonstrates a capacity to give of one self to others.
I have just entered the generativity versus stagnation stage which may explain my attempts to change my profession to one which I believe maybe be more fulfilling based on the satisfaction to be gained from helping others. I however, have doubts as to whether some of these processes, such as a desire to help others, can be fixed to a set time span. This stage emphasizes caring for others and wanting to give back based on reflectivity on one’s life in my opinion, but how do you explain younger persons who have committed themselves to this type of purpose either by starting to have a family early or committing them themselves helping others.
I find the theory to be very relatable, in that it emphasizes social conflict and personal dilemmas that I can identify with, such as trying to find myself as a teenager and trying to decide where I wanted to go with my life. The theory also seems to encompass the cognitive, culture and biological aspects of us as individuals; it seems to indicate that we are not determined solely by factors outside of our control such as instinct. The theory depicts persons as growing and developing over the life span and is contrary to main stream psychoanalytical/psychosexual theories, which focus mainly on early childhood development and posits that our personality is set before we get to adulthood.
The psychosocial theory shows that persons undergo changes throughout their life cycle, with specific changes occurring at distinct periods of time. I however, question the predictability of the sequence, the specific changes and their occurrence as persons development can vary based on their experiences and culture. In my view, the theory is heavily reflective of western culture, based on their timelines and standards. It also brings into question nature versus nurture, as I believe Erikson may have ignored what I regard as innate traits that we are born with that will result in different personalities despite exposure to the same caregivers and environment.
The question that still remains in my mind is what happens if I have unresolved issues from my adolescences stage. Specifically, if one does not achieve balance, because I am still unsure of what I want to do with my life and where I want to go. In some regards, does that make one less of well developed, productive adult? Additionally, can stages be initiated prior to or after the age ranges identified especially for the adult phases.
Overall, the theory is one that presents a framework of personality and development, where individuals are seen as thinking, rational beings who are impacted by their interrelationships and environment. While I may have questions about some aspects, I appreciate that no single theory covers all the complexities of human development and that the theories are also influenced by the life and experiences of the theorist.
