How Does Lack Of Motivation Affect The Workplace?

CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION

Top decision makers and managers will benefit from awareness of motivational factors that influence workers’ decisions to remain in their current workplace. Workers’ career decisions are dependent upon many factors with intrinsic work motivation as one of the core components; therefore, examining intrinsic work motivation factors or dynamics serves as a pivotal point for the study of workers’ decisions to remain in the job.

Workplace motivation occurs through extrinsic (external) and intrinsic or internal dynamics. Extrinsic motivators in the work environment include salaries, bonuses, commissions, health care insurance, promotions, vacations, stock options and other tangible rewards (Robbins, 2001). Intrinsic motivational factors in the workplace include job satisfaction, public and personal recognition, positive relationships with managers and coworkers, and the ability to influence the work situation (Thomas, 2000).

According to Thomas (2000), intrinsic work motivational strategies may be the untapped resource appealing to the older workers. Understanding and analyzing intrinsic work motivators may be the key to worker retention. Workers have adapted and accepted extrinsic motivators based upon familiarity with the organizational distribution and management of external benefits. Intrinsic motivation may be less observable than outward rewards such as employee benefits, improved pay packages, vacations and tangible awards. Deci and Flaste (1996) pointed out that intrinsic motivation results from action that produces self-satisfaction, self-confidence and enjoyment. Managers cannot direct intrinsic motivation; however, they can encourage an environment that fosters and supports employee opportunities to work toward personal satisfaction and accomplishment.

The main goal of this study is to find out how does motivation affect the workplace. August and Quintero (2001) stated, “Recognize that decisions made about whether, when and how to retire are a function not only of desire but also context” (p. 63). Workers make decisions about their futures based upon the environments in which they live and work. Retirement decisions intertwine with external and internal contextual factors such as physical health, collegial relationships, health care and financial benefits, and a sense of satisfaction with one’s contribution to organizational goals. For those contemplating retirement, the contextual scene varies with internal factors playing a significant role. Intrinsic work motivation occurs within the workplace environment whether as a sense of accomplishment or a sense of self-fulfillment from completing a challenge. Capitalizing on the concept of intrinsic motivators may be the competitive edge in maintaining a vitalized workforce.

Background of the Study

In the interim, business and industry may need to develop strategies addressing labor shortages including retention of workers who have reached the traditional retirement age. The U.A.E. Government Economic Department Office stated that almost 80% of workers, those between the ages of 55 and 74, are employed in professional, managerial, service, office and administrative support and sales occupations; these occupations make up approximately 76% of the total workforce aged 25 to 74. (2005, p. 2) 4 While these demographics illustrate the impending population shift, current and future job projections pose another change as demands for workers with technological knowledge increases exponentially. As the workforce ages, intensified demands for technology skills are on the rise, thus increasing demands for knowledge-based workers as the labor pool shrinks. The critical challenge arises in the retention of older workers as well as meeting technological requirements. Challenges arise in attempting to fill the knowledge gaps with older workers. Along with the impact of the worker shortfall and an aging workforce, potential knowledge gaps will exist. As managers and workers retire, they exit with a wealth of organizational knowledge, job skills and experiences that may be difficult to replace. Coupled with the exit of skills and knowledge, the complications from “the increasing complexity of knowledge needed in technologically advanced societies” (DeLong, 2004, p. 12) intensifies the need for retention as well as training strategies that support older workers. Warr and Birdi (1994) observed, “Changes in employment demands in combination with increases in workforce age generates a special need for enhanced learning among older groups” (p. 191). Warr and Birdi also noted that older workers might have fewer opportunities to pursue training due to managerial perspective as well as worker interest.

Thus, conflicting forces occur when the career choices of workers affect the maintenance of needed skills and experiences while newly defined skill sets are in demand. Decisions driving retirement plans depend upon multiple factors such as health, financial status, satisfaction with work, professional status, fulfillment, family demands and personal goals. Inherent in these factors are the intrinsic motivators that are difficult to measure, or determine. According to DeLong (2004), “The giant sucking sound you will hear is all the knowledge being drained out of organizations by retirements and other forms of turnover” (p. 13). Career-defining decisions play a prominent role in the life of older workers because of the challenges related to retiring, revitalizing existing career paths or beginning new directions. The life phase of older adulthood can be complicated by the realization that time is not infinite, personal resources may be compromised by energy and health issues, and professional opportunities may be static. Kanfer and Ackerman (2004) stated, “Aging and adult development represent important but largely unexplored influences on work motivation” (p. 441). As psychologists focusing on adult life stages, Kanfer and Ackerman posited that extrinsic motivation for midlife workers levels off and a greater interest in reinforcing self-identity and creating a legacy emerges. A personal struggle emerges within the older adult when facing the four age related developmental factors (as defined by Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004) of loss, growth, reorganization and exchange. As older workers experience loss in physical, relational, professional and social arenas, they also have opportunity to reorganize their lives in the context of acceptance or denial. The reorganization phase is an opportunity to develop accommodations to handle losses and find subsequent growth. The growth phase focuses on moving forward into surfacing new approaches in the physical, relational, professional and social arenas. The exchange phase consists of substitution strategies and accommodation methods that involve developing a different perception or new frame around life events. Physical, mental, relational and attitudinal components influence the strength and nature of adaptation. Life’s developmental issues are felt internally and externally throughout adulthood, but these issues become more pronounced during later life. Developmental issues that compound personal as well as professional life complicate career choices of workers.

Research design and project implementation plans

To answer the research questions and attain the research objectives, an empirical case study will be conducted in the Economic Department located in Ras Al Khaimah, U.A.E. in order to understand how lack of motivation can affect the organization. The selected methodology for the case study will include 1) survey, 2) written interviews, and 3) observations by this research to a Caseiˆ post-mortem review. This method was chosen for several reasons: Case Study: the use of a case study is an empirical research strategy, which is especially appropriate for contemporary observable facts within their real life settings (Yin, 1993). The case study methodology also allows for multiple sources of data, both qualitative and quantitative. Being able to test a hypothesis through data obtained from multiple sources permits a triangulation approach to validation. For these reasons, the case study research methodology is suitable in this study.

Statistical analysis will be performed on the quantitative data.

Data Collection Instrument Selection

This research proposed to use three (3) different sources of data:

1) Survey,

2) Written open-ended questions in survey (written interviews), and

3) Observations.

This selection was made based on the following analysis of data collection instruments.

Surveys are data collection instruments that allow the collection of information not otherwise

available; for example, data on how subjects feel or perceive a matter (tacit information) can be

more easily extracted with a survey than with observations (Girden, 2001). Surveys can be

conducted by a person (personal interviews or telephone interviews) or by administrating a

written questionnaire (mail-in, on-line, etc.). In interviews, personal or sensitive questions are

more easily answered in written anonymous questionnaires. However, the reliability and validity

of the data collected through written surveys are closely dependent on the respondents’ candor

and memories (Bourque, et al, 1992). Because a written survey features a uniform presentation

in nature, it presents fewer opportunities for interviewer/interviewee bias, as opposed to face-to face or telephone interviews, while it makes the analysis easier to conduct. Interviews, especially

semi-structured ones, are better sources for deeper, additional information because of the probing

opportunity the interviewer has (Leedy, 1997). This advantage notwithstanding, the interview

questions should also follow a rigorous planning strategy and be pilot-tested to ensure clarity,

precision, and little bias (Leedy, 1997). In addition, Gall, et al (1996), also stipulate that efficient

interviews should avoid leading or cross-examining questions. Yin (2002) furthermore contends

that interviews may also face “reflexivity” problem, when the interviewee answers questions in

the way he/she thinks the interviewer may want to hear it.

With regard to observations, Yin (2002) also stipulates that this data collection technique has been widely used in anthropological studies, but is also appropriate for large or small groups

such as organizations. Observations of the participating subjects can provide “insider”

information on events or their environment, which would not be otherwise observed. However,

caution about the potential bias linked to personal observations due to possible manipulation of

events, facts, by the interviewer, should be noted (Becker, 1958, Yin, 2002).

Finally, according to Yin (2002), a case study, such as this research intends to be, will benefit from data collections instruments such as surveys, interviews, and observations, because they help this research in obtaining several sources of evidence, which will help with the issues of construct validity and reliability. This principle of using multiple data sources (triangulation) is at the core of the case study data collection protocol. For example, surveys might provide

quantitative data for analysis, while individual or verbal/open-ended written information can be

obtained through interviews or observations, thus presenting additional data to support the same

facts, and multiple measures for the same event. Although Patton (1987) mentions 4 types of

triangulations: 1) data sources, 2) evaluators (several researchers with the same data collection

instruments) 3) theory (using outside-the-field-of-study professionals to interpret the theory), and

4) methods (multiple use of other qualitative and quantitative methods to test the theory),

triangulation in the context of case study analysis refers to data sources, and the ability to

measure/witness the same fact from various data collection instruments. In all cases, the purpose

of data triangulation is to provide validity to a case study or other studies that are part qualitative.

The multiple-source data collection process also helps validate the empirical results (Iversen, et

al, 2006). Figure 5 represents the various data collection instruments this research intended to

use.

The high-level methodology of this research contains 9 steps:

1) Define the research area: the purpose is to choose a research subject relevant to academicians and practitioners in the field of engineering management.

2) Review of the literature: the goal is to review what has already been published in the literature in this area, and define what the current level of understanding in the research area is, as well, as potential unexplored research theme(s) that has (have) not been addressed yet.

3) Identify the gaps and the research objectives: at this stage, after reviewing the literature review and gaining a better understanding of the research area, the major unexplored gaps in the literature review and the main research objectives are delimited for further exploration by this research. Steps 1, 2, and 3 are at the subject of Chapters 1 and 2 of this research and provide the overall research scope, objectives, questions, and hypotheses.

4) Conceptualize the research objectives: the purpose is to define in more details the conceptual model of the research questions, refining the hypotheses, describe in details how the constructs and variables will be defined, and narrowing the research components.

5) Formulate, operationalize the research methodology, and practically design the research: the purpose is to select the data collection instruments that will be used to measure the constructs, develop these data collection instruments, and determine how the data will be analyzed. Steps 4 and 5 are the subjects of Chapter 3 of this research.

6) Execute the research:

a. First, the goal is to develop pilot interviews, surveys and other data collection instruments, test them, and make appropriate changes in order to refine the data collection instruments;

b. The second goal is to gather the data with those improved data collection instruments from the sampled population.

7) Analyze the data: the objective is to examine the data and conduct statistical analysis to test the hypotheses.

8) Provide and interpret research results: the goal is to determine if the conceptual model has been validated, if the hypotheses have been proven, and to what extent.

9) Conclude the research and refine the theory: the objective is to determine what additional research might help this research, and provide the research documents. Steps 6, 7, and 8 provide the content of this research’s Chapters 4 and 5.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Motivational Techniques

In organizations, motivation is defined as placing effort and/or utilizing a high amount of energy towards the achievement of certain goals (Weiner, 2005). There are numerous operational procedures within organizations of today; however, each may incorporate various unique processes of motivating employees to ensure overall success. These techniques are typically established through means of efficiency and productivity by ensuring that management partners with (and through) its employees to achieve certain goals established by the organization.

Motivational Techniques and Theories

As previously mentioned, the term ‘job satisfaction’ can encompass a broad range of subjects. McGregor (1966) developed the philosophy concept of Theory X and Theory Y, which includes the concepts that management is responsible for: an organization’s economic growth, motivating/directing employees to meet the organization’s needs, and finally, in order to motivate, management must take some kind of action (whether soft or hard) that will get the desired results. In addition, an employee’s point of view must be remembered.

McGregor believed the average employee only strives for the bare minimum because he/she lacks ambition and has a dislike for responsibility. Further, it was viewed that man preferred to be led yet is often resistant to change. McGregor also explained that by nature an employee is foolish and is not often in sync with the organization’s needs. The above describes McGregor’s (1966) conventional hard and soft philosophies which managers use to accomplish goals. In order for management to achieve certain results, either many be utilized. The hard approach refers to methods such as force, threat, close supervision or tight control over subordinates. Although effective at times, this approach tends to produce negative results/attitudes, which may lead to sabotage of management’s objectives. The ‘Soft Approach’ is less potent and it allows management to achieve goals in a manner that does not conflict with the harmony and satisfaction of employees. This is the more pleasant of the two approaches; however, the soft technique may lead to less dedication as employees take advantage of the system. Through the above approaches, McGregor (1966) was able to examine the various levels of influence and control that all produced. McGregor believed that authority itself should be centralized and all control should exist through an organization’s hierarchy of authoritative relationships. While the ability to influence is generally often perceived as an extension of authority, it is still one of many organizational techniques used to control and/or motivate others (Wren, 1994). As a result of the research conducted on the industrial organization, Mayo (1965) was able to focus on yet another aspect of job satisfaction by analyzing those ongoing problems (e.g., fatigue) that employees encountered in the workplace.

Mayo’s studies analyzed organizational rest periods, workplace environment, visualization and illumination, work hours, and other aspects that my possibly influence employee satisfaction. As a result of the research Mayo conducted on social behavior and morale as well as on employees and the workplace environment, Mayo identified that: (a) organizations no longer possessed the potential for 25 harmony and cohesion; (b) certain social systems were being overlooked; (c) effective, mutual collaborations had minimized; and (d) the building of strong, internal relationships no longer existed and as a result, many employees displayed behaviors of misery and sadness. Mayo’s (1945) Relay Assembly research on specific working conditions (e.g., hours and compensation) revealed that organizations often attempted to resolve employee disputes with tools that were not equipped for problem solving. Altogether, Mayo’s studies confirmed that both internal and/or external conditions could influence employee feelings of and behaviors toward the job, coworkers, and management while the outcome depended on whether or not an employee’s needs were satisfied.

Mayo also identified that in implementing a specific process known as, interviewing, ample data could be gathered while discovering quality results in understanding these behaviors was the final outcome. This, of course, could only occur if certain distinctions were identified that separated employee realities from feelings; and as a result, job satisfaction could be accomplished. Another means of accomplishing employee satisfaction was through the allowance of recognition and verbalization of feelings. The examinations conducted by Mayo (1965) within the Western Electric Studies specifically demonstrate that sentiment, verses logic, was necessary in solving human problems. Additionally, these studies confirmed that employees were not individuals who favored isolation; instead, humans were socialists and desired to be treated accordingly. If this aspect could not be satisfied, any human would become discontented and eventually disinterested in the company itself. Mayo’s concern was establishing a concept in which the workers, management and the organization were considered an entity within itself. As such, this entire development was what Mayo believed to establish organizational stability. Once this was achieved, negative changes and other environmental influences could easily be resisted. While each employee would still possess his/her own skill set in the workplace, all individual ideas and contributions would be intertwined within the organizational structure and, as a result, both all employees (including management) would be satisfied.

Roethlisberger and Dickson (1961) also explored employee satisfaction through the analysis of human relation issues within the workplace. Both theorists were primarily known for their research on the Hawthorne Studies involving: (a) all Relay Assembly Test Room experiments, (b) tests involving breaks and rest periods, (c) tests examining work days, (d) tasks resulting in exhaustion and boredom, (e) the impact of monetary work incentives, (f) test room workers, (g) analysis of supervision procedures, (h) interviewing, (i) the establishment of organizational planning, (j) personalities and behaviors, (k) informal control structures, (l) formal/informal organizations, and (m) the relationships between supervisor and the employee which, overall, provided explanations to how employees were influenced in the workplace.

The Hawthorne Test Room methods examined worker competence and environmental working conditions. The research involved the examination of the culture and overall environment where approximately 20,000 employees (one within Hawthorne plant itself) were consulted on various aspects of the job that they liked and/or disliked and resulted in the identification of certain factors that caused both satisfaction and dissatisfaction.

In contrast to the suggested theories of motivation of Bass (1985), McGregor (1966), Mayo (1945) and Roethlisberger and Dickson (1961), Hertzberg (1959) found that job satisfaction is initiated through the identification that most people have two kinds of work-related drives: growth needs and avoidance needs. By growth needs, Hertzberg described certain job elements (e.g.,. recognition, advancement and job enhancement) that motivate workers. Avoidance needs included things that affected an employee’s ability to be dissatisfied (e.g., salary, policies and working conditions). Hertzberg also found a need to study these job attitudes (feelings) of workers in hopes of finding methods that would improve morale and employee happiness. The results could then be used to reinforce specific techniques that satisfied people and diminished those means that did just the opposite. A person’s motivation to work can be explained from the perspectives of both external/internal influences (Pinnington & Edwards, 2000).

According to Hertzberg (1959), people must know their own individual needs and understand what things encourage/discourage their, individual learning process. Without this knowledge, a person may spend numerous hours completing redundant tasks that soon become less fulfilling (Montana and Charnov, 2000). As mentioned previously, Hertzberg (1959) noted there are many factors affecting a worker’s happiness on the job. Because of this, it was imperative that answers were found explaining what caused certain attitudes towards an employee’s job, what the specific attitudes were, and what they had on individuals.

Hertzberg (1959) used several approaches towards understanding one’s job attitude. First, it was necessary to understand the person’s overall feeling for a job. To accomplish this, various tests and surveys were conducted to specifically gather different demographic information that would reveal any possible differences according to an employee’s age, education, social class, gender and position in the organization. During these studies, (also known as Pilot Projects), Hertzberg discovered the specifics of employee satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Interviewers asked employees to recall and describe situations where exceptional feelings were felt and to identify what caused these feelings as they directly related to the job. Interviewers also asked for specifics in identifying negative feelings felt toward the job and why. These studies produced two critical components that connected to an employee’s level of motivation that is known as Hertzberg’s two-factor or motivation-hygiene theory.

Maslow’s (1954) Hierarchy of Needs theory described five basic needs: physiological needs (food, water, sleep, oxygen, warmth, and freedom from pain), safety, social belonging, esteem and self actualization. Hertzberg’s (1959) theory encompassed needs similar to Maslow’s (1954) theory; however, needs such as physiological and security operated as workplace dissatisfiers while top level needs (e.g., ego and self actualization) functioned at motivators. Hertzberg found that 41 percent of the tested employees favored achievement as being the most important factor of the job. Even while gathering this data, people were able to provide detailed situations of accomplishment which resulted in fulfilling the need felt.

The second highest factor was recognition by 33 percent. Along with achievement, any type of recognition from peers, supervisors and customers seemed to be appreciated and remembered by the employee. As for the other rated areas, the rest involved the job/work itself. For example, an employee’s work, responsibility issued, available advancement and growth were all important; however, still ranked third, fourth, fifth and up in comparison to achievement and recognition (Hertzberg, 1959).

At the end of the above list, what Hertzberg (1959) identified as Maintenance Factors or Dissatisfiers, were items such as working conditions, an employee’s personal life, company policy, and job security. Hertzberg found these to be areas that hardly became instrumental in causing high job attitudes/morale.

Although important, all of the findings of employee satisfaction pointed to relations to the actual job itself. It was in these lower areas that employees remembered less detailed stories/situations concerning satisfaction on the job due to policies and life situations. In an overall comparison between both high and low job attitudes, Hertzberg (1959) found that based on the percentages of the different categories discussed above, there was a greater possibility for job dissatisfaction than satisfaction. This meant that only two specific aspects stood out as being the most important leaving the majority (whether average or low in percentages) to be viewed as not being adequate enough to satisfy. This proved Hertzberg’s original hypothesis that only certain factors could please employees while others could satisfy and yet enable dissatisfaction to a certain extent. In addition, Hertzberg also concluded that once an individual had all lower level needs met, the factor of motivation may still not exist because people somewhat anticipated that these needs would be fulfilled. If unfulfilled, however, these factors would then become one’s primary concern thus eliminating (altogether) those motivational factors that presently exist. Understanding the intricacy that existed, Hertzberg also concluded that both motivator and hygiene needs determined the overall effectiveness of one’s job performance.

The discussion the above defends that the research of theorists Bass (1985), McGregor (1966) and Mayo (1965) have all contributed to those motivational concepts established and practiced within organizations today. The concepts discussed above encompass (and examine) a broader spectrum of factors that influence performance and overall job satisfaction.

WORK CITED
Work Cited

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