Proteins the cell, each with its own

Proteins are the most imperative macromolecule in the cells. proteins catalyze responses in our bodies, transport atoms, for example, oxygen, keep us sound as a feature of the safe framework and transmit messages from cell to cell. All enzymes are proteins, and proteins frame the premise of most cell structures. Regardless of whether we are discussing carbon dioxide in photosynthesis or oxygen transportation in the blood we are managing forms that depend significantly on proteins with functions. (Becker, Kleinsmith & Hardin, 2000). There is a wide verity of proteins in the cell, each with its own particular capacity and physical structure. Among a wide range of parts that proteins serve in the cell, proteins have auxiliary parts to enable the cell to keep its shape, control movement and with the repair process.

(“Proteins”, 2018). Proteins fall into four major classes enzyme, structural proteins, motility proteins and regulatory proteins. Proteins are enzymes that serve as catalysts which increase the rates of of chemical reactions which life depends on. Structural proteins provide support and structure to cells and organelles, giving them their characteristic appearances. Mortality proteins have significant roles in the tightening and movement of cells and intercellular structures. Regulator proteins ae responsible for the control and coordination of cellular functions ensuring that cellular activities are regulated to meet cellular needs (Becker, Kleinsmith & Hardin, 2000).

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The structure of a protein is usually described in terms of four hierarchical level of organization: the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures. Primary structure refers to the amino acid sequence, while the highest level of organization concerns the interactions between the amino acid R groups that give the protein its characteristic conformation or three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in space. The secondary structure involves local interactions between contiguous amino acids along the chain; the tertiary structure results from long-distance interactions between stretches of amino acids from different parts of the molecule; and quaternary structure concerns the interaction of two or more individual polypeptides to form a single multimeric protein (Becker, Kleinsmith & Hardin, 2000). Cellular respiration depends on proteins synthesised outside the mitochondrion and imported into it, and on proteins synthesised inside the mitochondrion from its own DNA (Karolinska Institutet, 2009). Cellular respiration is an oxidative process whereby an electron donor is oxidized and oxygen is reduced to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy. cellular respiration allows controlled release of free energy from carbohydrate, fat, and protein energy substrate.

Cellular respiration consists of three related series of biochemical reactions: reactions resulting in the formation of acetyl coenzyme A and reducing equivalents. Metabolism of acetate to carbon dioxide in the Krebs cycle with generation of additional reducing equivalents. Shuttling of electrons generated from reducing equivalents along the mitochondrial electron transport chain Acetate coupled to coenzyme A (AcCoA) is derived from carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins (Zimmerman, André-von Arnim & McLaughlin, 2011). Cellular respiration is the enzymatic breakdown of glucose (C6H12O6) in the presence of oxygen (O2) to produce cellular energy (ATP).The cytoskeleton is responsible for cell shape, motility (movement) of the cell as a whole, and motility of organelles within a cell Microtubules are tube-like structural proteins that help chromosomes move throughout the cell.

They are “modular” proteins because microtubules can add or subtract protein units to become longer or shorter, respectively, while continuing to provide the cell with structural support during cell division (“Proteins”, 2018). Kinetochores are the protein structures located at the intersection of the two sister chromatids that serves as an attachment site for microtubules and spindle fibers during cell division to help pull the two chromatids apart. Histones are the proteins that help chromatin to condense. They serve as “spools” around which DNA winds and play a role in gene regulation.

Without histones, the unwound DNA in chromosomes would be very long and unable to fit into the nucleus of a cell (“Proteins”, 2018).Proteins are polymers of amino acids. The conformation of a protein is critical for its activity. Protein conformation is determined by the sequence of amino acids and their interactions with each other and the environment. The structure of a protein has several levels of organization. The primary structure of a protein is the amino acid sequence of a single polypeptide.

The amino acids are linked via peptide bonds. The secondary structure of a protein describes the local features of organization, determined by hydrogen bonding between adjacent peptide bonds. Two common secondary structures are the alpha helix and the beta sheet. The tertiary structure of a protein describes the overall shape of the polypeptide and is regulated by more long-range interactions that occur between the amino acids throughout the polypeptide. These interactions involve the R-groups of the amino acids and include disulfide bonds, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions.

The quaternary structure of a protein describes the assembly of multiple polypeptide chains into a functional protein. The quaternary structure of a protein is generated by the same types of interactions that determine the tertiary structure. A protein’s conformation and activity can be altered by denaturation, most commonly involving heat, extreme pHs or reducing agents.

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